224 Gigabits per second (Gbps) pulse-amplitude modulation 4-level (PAM 4) technology is foundational for the hyperscale data centers needed for artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) training and implementation. This article begins by examining the multiple uses of 224 G connectivity in servers and storage devices. It then considers how multiple 224 G lanes […]

By Anson Yeganegi and Song Li, InvenSense Sensors can improve player safety and performance through data collection. Both soccer and American football have embraced advanced technologies to varying degrees, including the use of sensors to elevate tracking and data collection in both games. The first sensor-enabled game ball using Connected Ball Technology, for instance, was […]

High-performance computing (HPC) for artificial intelligence (AI) applications places extreme demands on memory connectors. They must deliver high-speed connectivity, high levels of signal integrity (SI), and support high-density solutions. This article reviews connector needs for Peripheral Component Interconnect Express 6.0 (PCIe 6.0), Serial Attached SCSI (SAS) including SAS 3.0, 4.0 and SAS/PCIe 5.0, and Data […]

High-speed board-to-board connectivity is evolving to meet the increasing performance demands and need for scalability of machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI) systems. The basic PCIe connectors and Card Electromechanical (CEM) form factor are still widely used to support scalability and high performance, but there are also new contenders. This article reviews the basics […]

Sensors are used to monitor the temperature of pizza ovens and preparation (prep) areas. They are used to monitor and control the speed of pizza movement in conveyor ovens. There are a variety of sensor technologies used in specific types of pizza ovens and for specific purposes. This article briefly reviews the U.S. Food and […]

The IEEE 802.3 single-pair Ethernet (SPE) standards include multidrop and daisy-chain architectures that support applications like automotive, industrial, and smart buildings. In addition, a range of SPE connector standards are available with several environmental classifications and ratings based on mechanical, ingress, climatic/chemical, and electromagnetic (M.I.C.E) attributes. Automotive systems are a key target for SPE deployment. […]

Position and angle sensors are used in several electric vehicle (EV) components, including the traction motor and drivetrain, heating, ventilation, air-conditioning (HVAC) compressor, steer-by-wire, brake-by-wire, regenerative braking, accelerator position, active headlight aiming, active suspension systems, and more. This FAQ reviews some position and angle sensing technologies and how the use cases differ between internal combustion […]

Specifications are provided for the insertion loss, return loss, and mode conversion loss in the link and mixing segments of a single-pair Ethernet (SPE) network. Connector specifications are also provided for coupling attenuation, impedance, return loss, and dielectric strength. This article begins by briefly examining where multidrop fits in the range of Ethernet connectivity options. […]

There are three common physical layer (PHY) variants for multidrop single pair Ethernet (SPE), basic PHY, media access controller (MAC) PHY, and transceiver. They rely on different interfaces, including a media-independent interface (MII), reduced media-independent interface (RMII), serial peripheral interface (SPI), OPEN Alliance 3-pin (OA-3P), and Ethernet advanced physical layer (Ethernet-APL). This article begins with […]

Eight existing IEEE single-pair Ethernet (SPE) standards exist, with a ninth expected to be announced next year. Current standards include 802.3bw (100BASE-T1), two types of 802.3bp (1000BASE-T1), 802.3ch (10BASE-T1) optimized for automated environments, three versions of 802.3cg (10BASE-T1S, 10BASE-T1L, and 10BASE-T1M), and the 802.3da single-pair multidrop segments enhancement standard that was approved in 2023. This […]

Multidrop capability is included in several IEEE single-pair Ethernet (SPE) standards, including 802.3cg substandards 10BASE-T1S and 10BASE-T1M and the newer 802.3da, which provides enhancements to 10BASE-T1M. This article begins with a brief review of SPE multidrop standards and then digs into the bus timing requirements and the use of Physical Layer Collision Avoidance (PLCA) and […]

Design verification requires both sophisticated models and the simulation they offer, as well as real-world validation of their results. Sensors and sensing for real-world physical parameters form a large part of the electronics scene, but it’s easy to confuse the two. A senior project leader I once worked with was always reminding us that “sensors […]

IO interface groups are supported by AI developers, HPC, Enterprise, and other market segment leaders, driving connector/cabling solutions using higher speed rates, varying lane counts, and pin counts. Besides supporting the very high volume pluggable Hyperscale market segment, various pluggable connector systems support other new applications and network topologies that are driving the use of […]

Early electricity investigators cleverly solved the challenge of measuring milliohm resistances or microvolt changes in voltage across a resistor over 150 years ago. This part continues the exploration of 4-wire Kelvin sensing. Read Part 1 here. Q: What did Lord Kelvin do? A: He realized that using a single combined path for forcing the current […]

Early electricity investigators cleverly solved the challenge of measuring milliohm resistances or microvolt changes in voltage across a resistor over 150 years ago. Engineers, scientists, and researchers must often reduce imperfections and associated inaccuracies in test and measurement situations. Among the techniques they have used to do this are: Use better, more accurate components with […]

Past and current data center hardware systems developers occasionally require and evaluate unexpected or previously unimagined connectivity solutions. These novel solutions often require a very short development cycle and low cost of ownership targets. Leading-edge test and measurement equipment developers sometimes need a good fast solution as a bridge product before qualifying a new connector […]

Bolometers based on superconducting Josephson junctions (JJs) can be used for several types of sensors, including transition edge sensors, Josephson escape sensors, and radiation threshold detectors. This articddle first presents the structure of a basic bolometer and then looks at how that structure can be varied to produce different types of sensors. A bolometer is […]

Millimeter-wave signals used in 5G networks provide wide bandwidth and high data rates. Signal losses, both over the air and through interconnects, bring design challenges. by Ketan Thakkar, Cinch Connectivity Millimeter wave (mmWave) signals offer engineers countless application possibilities, including ranging, object detection, and mapping. Unfortunately, mmWaves bring numerous design challenges. Not only do mmWave […]

A transition edge sensor (TES) is a microcalorimeter based on superconductivity. Compared with alternative technologies like energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), a TES can provide higher resolution measurements and resolve emission lines at closely adjacent energies. In astrophysics, TES is used to measure the relative abundance of elements like boron, carbon, and oxygen versus silicon […]

Hollow core fiber (HCF) optical sensors are used in applications including Li-ion battery research and development (R&D), robotic arms, civil engineering infrastructural health monitoring, and biosensing. Some of the attributes of HCF optical sensors are small footprints, non-conductance, chemical stability, and high dynamic ranges. In the case of activities like Li-ion R&D, HCFs can be […]

Zinc oxide (ZnO) is a common ingredient in sunscreen lotions. Less well-known is the fact that it’s also a wide band gap (WBG) semiconductor (3.4 eV). As a nanomaterial, ZnO is being used to develop a wide variety of sensor technologies. Sensor applications for ZnO include health monitoring, chemical sensing, biomedical, and environmental sensors. Some […]

Hyperspectral imaging is the most comprehensive of the three common image processing technologies. The other two technologies are red-green-blue (RGB) imaging and multispectral imaging. All three are noninvasive and nondestructive and give engineers and scientists different ways to analyze objects. RGB imaging can be quick and inexpensive to implement and provides basic information about an […]

USB4 represents a significant change from past standards from the USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF). It is based on the Thunderbolt 3 protocol. Support of Thunderbolt 3 interoperability is required on all ports for USB4 docks, for downward-facing ports on hubs, and is optional for USB4 hosts and peripheral devices. Like Thunderbolt, USB4 allows tunneling of […]

The use of digital twins can be an important factor in maximizing the performance and flexibility of Industry 4.0 factories. Open Platform Communications (OPC) is the interoperability standard for the secure and reliable exchange of data in industrial automation environments. OPC has been expanded to include the unified architecture (UA), standardized as IEC 62541, that […]

Basic plastics are electrically insulating, but with the proper additives, they can become conductive. Electrically conductive plastics can be used to replace metal components and improve sustainability in several areas of connector construction. They take less energy to fabricate and are lighter, reducing system weight, a very important consideration in applications like electric vehicles (EVs). […]